Estimating a Trees Age Without Cutting the Tree

The most accurate way foresters determine the age of a tree is by counting the growth rings of a severed tree stump or by taking a core sample using an increment borer. However, it is not always appropriate or practical to use these invasive methods to age a tree. There is a noninvasive way to estimate tree age in common trees where they are grown in a forest environment. Growth Depends on Species Trees have different growth rates, depending on their species. A red maple  with a 10-inch diameter and competing with other forest-grown trees can easily be 45 years old while a neighboring red oak with the same diameter would only be approximately 40 years old. Trees, by species, are genetically coded to grow at about the same rate under similar conditions. A formula was previously developed and used by the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA)  to predict and determine a forestland  trees age. Running the calculations and comparing them to a species growth factor is regionally and species-specific, so these should be considered very rough calculations and can vary by region and site index. The ISA says that tree growth rates are affected tremendously by conditions such as water availability, climate, soil conditions, root stress, competition for light, and overall plant vigor. Further, the  growth rates of species within genera can vary significantly. So, only use this data as a very rough estimate of a trees age. Estimating a Trees Age by Species Begin by determining the tree species and taking a diameter measurement (or convert circumference to a diameter measurement) using a tape measure at diameter breast height or 4.5 feet above stump level. If you are using circumference, you will need to make a calculation to determine the tree diameter: Diameter Circumference divided by 3.14 (pi). Then calculate the age of a tree by multiplying the trees diameter by its growth factor as determined by species (see list below). Here is the formula:  Diameter X Growth Factor Approximate Tree Age. Lets use a red maple to calculate age. A red maples growth factor has been determined to be 4.5 and you have determined that its diameter is 10 inches: 10 inch diameter X 4.5 growth factor 45 years. Remember that the growth factors  provided are more accurate when taken from  forest grown trees with competition. Growth Factors by Tree Species Red Maple Species - 4.5 Growth Factor X diameterSilver Maple Species - 3.0 Growth Factor X diameterSugar Maple Species - 5.0 Growth Factor X diameterRiver Birch Species - 3.5 Growth Factor X diameterWhite Birch Species - 5.0 Growth Factor X diameterShagbark Hickory Species - 7.5 Growth Factor X diameterGreen Ash Species - 4.0 Growth Factor X diameterBlack Walnut Species - 4.5 Growth Factor X diameterBlack Cherry Species - 5.0 Growth Factor X diameterRed Oak Species - 4.0 Growth Factor X diameterWhite Oak Species - 5.0 Growth Factor X diameterPin Oak Species - 3.0 Growth Factor X diameterBasswood Species - 3.0 Growth Factor X diameterAmerican Elm Species - 4.0 Growth Factor X diameterIronwood Species - 7.0 Growth Factor X diameterCottonwood Species - 2.0 Growth Factor X diameterRedbud Species - 7.0 Growth FactorDogwood Species - 7.0 Growth Factor X diameterAspen Species - 2.0 Growth Factor X diameter Considerations for Aging Street and Landscape Trees Because trees in a landscape or park are often pampered, protected, and sometimes older than forest-grown trees, it is more of an art to aging these trees without significant error. There are foresters and arborists with enough tree core and stump evaluations under their belts who can age a tree with a degree of accuracy. Its important to keep in mind that it is still impossible to do anything but estimate a tree age under these conditions. For younger street and landscape trees, pick a genus or species from above and reduce the Growth Rate Factor by half. For old to ancient trees, significantly increase the Growth Rate Factor. Sources and Further Information Fien, Erin K. P., et al. Drivers of Individual Tree Growth and Mortality in an Uneven-Aged, Mixed-Species Conifer Forest. Forest Ecology and Management 449 (2019): 117446. Print.Lhotka, John M., and Edward F. Loewenstein. An Individual-Tree Diameter Growth Model for Managed Uneven-Aged Oak-Shortleaf Pine Stands in the Ozark Highlands of Missouri, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 261.3 (2011): 770–78. Print.Lukaszkiewicz, Jan, and Marek Kosmala. Determining the Age of Streetside Trees with Diameter at Breast Height-Based Multifactorial Model. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry 34.3 (2008): 137–43. Print.Pothier, David. Analysing the Growth Dynamics of Mixed Stands Composed of Balsam Fir and Broadleaved Species of Various Shade Tolerances. Forest Ecology and Management 444 (2019): 21–29. Print.

Should Prostitution Be Legal - 1911 Words

Legalizing Prostitution When it comes to the topic of legalizing prostitution, some of us will readily agree that it is the oldest profession that involves money rather than the historic hunter and gather. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of the safety of the man or woman selling their body for financial gain. Though I concede that prostitution can be dangerous, I still insist that legalizing prostitution would not only benefit the men and women involved, it would also be a financial gain to the government. Prostitution is the oldest profession, and it isn’t going away any time soon. We have legalized gambling, marijuana and tobacco but the fair trade of sex for money still remains something that is frowned upon. Instead of looking at prostitution as inhumane, it should be looked at as a service industry where two consenting adults exchange money for pleasure. Making prostitution legal would allow the sexual favor to be managed rather than ignored. Legalizing prostitution could save money for the government in many ways. There would be fewer court cases, and law enforcement could focus on gang related issues, instead of arresting prostitutes, holding them in jail, only to release them back to the streets. It is a never ending cycle because it is not legal. It is true, there are millions of sexually exploited women and men who are involved in prostitution that are treated like animals by their pimps and often times their own customers.Show MoreRelatedShould Prostitution Be Legal? Essay1145 Words   |  5 PagesShould prostitution be legal? Prostitution has been around for decades. Since 1780 BC the legalization of prostitution has been a controversial topic. Prostitution is the act or practice of engaging in promiscuous sexual relations especially for money.† Prostitution. Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2016. Many claim that is one of the oldest professions. If this is one of the oldest professions why is it still illegal? So many people have different opinions on the issueRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal1695 Words   |  7 Pagesthat prostitution will exist no matter what because men will always degrade women, and women, in turn, can do the same to men, even though these moral aspects are not connected with the legalization process, mostly depending on moral qualities of the society members, and not on a position on prostitution. Thus, the essay will try to prove why prostitution should not be legal with the help of analysis of the articles of the well-known scientists. While feminist theory represents prostitution as aRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1236 Words   |  5 Pagesmajority of people believe prostitution should stay illegal, claiming that the legalization of prostitution will only make the chances of getting an STD even higher, an increase in rape rates, and will also add to the growth of human trafficking. Although this could be the case, there have been many studies that tell a different story. Currently, Nevada has allowed prostitution in 11 of its counties with much success. There can be many benefits from the legalization of prostitution in the states. LegalizingRead MoreProstitution: It Should Be Legal 1431 Words   |  6 PagesAccording to the Merriam- Webster dictionary, prostitution is defined as â€Å"the work of a prostitute: the act of having sex in exchange for money† (cite). Underneath this definition is one that follows as, â€Å"the use of a skill or ability in a way that is not appropriate or respectableâ €  (cite). Prostitution is a pressing matter in the United States and, as one can assume after reading the second definition given, implicated negatively throughout society. Many view this topic in an undesirable mannerRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal? Essay1261 Words   |  6 PagesProstitution has existed in history since before most people can remember. In our time, prostitution is hotly debated as to whether it should be a professional working job, or whether it is immoral and oppressive to women. This debate has existed since the dawn of time, and there is still no clear answer. Society demands that police should stop certain illicit activities from happening in their neighborhoods, but should law enforcement be made to waste their time and effort to arrest those thatRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1157 Words   |  5 PagesLegalizing Prostitution in Brothels Throughout America When someone says prostitution, the first couple things that probably come to mind are grimy girls that have ruined their lives with drugs sitting on a couch cracked out with a man they just met. Prostitutes are looked at as whores who cannot sustain a real career so they are forced to sell their bodies for sex. The prostitution industry is essentially just like any other service industry. The worker charges his or her customer for a serviceRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1440 Words   |  6 PagesCanadian legal system stands prostitution. Prostitution by definition is the practice or occupation of engaging in sexual activity with someone for payment. Prostitution in our legal system can be dated back to the 18th century, this was the first Canadian statute to acknowledge prostitution. Prostitution in this time was handled by three legal approaches, regulation, prohibition and lastly rehabilitation. It is believed that because of these three legal approaches that is why prost itution is stillRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1057 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"A human body is a temple; we should love it and respect it.† How often have we come across those people who sell their bodies, so-called temples and have been termed as â€Å"prostitutes?† Prostitution can be defined as the profession of getting involved in sexual activity with someone and to get paid back in return. Sex and sex-related issues have always been the matter to be hidden, and the civilized people are considered to be not speaking about it at all. Despite the fact, none can escape it ourRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1150 Words   |  5 Pagesgroup of friends. The question is: Should prostitution be legal? My question is: Why shouldn’t it? By all means I respect the opinion that having sex for money is completely illegal in most states but what about stripping? Stripping is completely legal and paid for lap dances aren’t the only advancement allowed. Strippers are allowed to receive payment to have sexual encounters within the establishment and it is completely legal. Protection for working women should exist across the board, not justRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1371 Words   |  6 PagesKayla Beaty College Success Professor Jernigan 02/04/2015 Prositution in the U.S For my paper I chose the topic â€Å"Prostitution In the U.S† I picked this topic because I feel as if there’s a lot to discuss about the subject itself. Prostitution in my eyes, should be illegal in all parts of America. I feel as if the crime itself is degrading not only to women, but the families of those involved that choose to commit these acts. My personal opinion, going more into detail is that I grew up viewing

Federalist Papers Free Essays

The Federalist Papers Several documents have helped carve the United States government from the beginning into what we know it as today†¦the Magna Carta, the Mayflower Compact, the Declaration of Independence†¦to name a few. One of the most important of those documents was The Federalist Papers. It is a series of 85 articles/essays that were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay, between 1787 and 1788. We will write a custom essay sample on Federalist Papers or any similar topic only for you Order Now This paper will focus on the purpose of the Federalist Papers, who the intended audience was, and why another document – the Articles of Confederation – written after the American Revolution, failed in the wake of the Constitution being drafted and ratified. (Peacock, n. d. ) The Federalist Papers, better known as The Federalist, or The New Constitution, was a planned attack devised by Alexander Hamilton, a lawyer from New York. Federalist Papers, 2012) I say attack, but it was more of a â€Å"strong support† of the newly proposed Constitution. He, along with Madison and Jay, wrote the papers under the pseudonym of Publius (the Roman citizen was that credited with saving the Roman republicanism). This was common practice when someone was writing something for public eyes, yet he or she didn’t want anyone to know who was writing the material. The Federalist Papers, 2002) The purpose was to try to and assist American republicanism by demonstrating the necess ity of the Constitution. The essays had another other significant purpose: it immediately showed New Yorkers why it was a good idea to ratify the Constitution and in turn word quickly spread to the other States in the Union. They actually took the lead in ratifying the document, with New York coming in after the necessary nine states that were needed had already ratified. The Federalist Papers have helped our society to clearly understand what the writers of the Constitution were thinking when they wrote that document nearly 200 years ago. That document’s main audience at that time: the people within the Union, in particular, the â€Å"doubters† and critics of the drafted Constitution. Although a number of important states had already ratified the Constitution before the essays were published, it most assuredly helped in getting the nine out of the thirteen states within the Union needed in order to get it passed. It clarified for many what the Constitution was telling them and why it was so important to have. Today, federal judges frequently use the Federalist Papers to interpret the Constitution as a means to get a broader picture of the intentions of the framers and ratifiers (The Federalist Papers, 2002) I don’t think the authors, Hamilton, Madison and Jay, knew that the papers they drafted and published between 1787 and 1788 would still be influential in today’s government choices and proceedings. The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 founding states that established the United States of America as a confederation of sovereign states and served as its first constitution. (Why did the Articles of Confederation fail? , 2012) With time, several things were pointed out as wrong or needing revising with the Articles. Among the reasons the Articles failed, giving way to the new Constitution, were: every state was independent (free to make their own choices, which did not sit well with the countries leaders) which reflected the seemingly written purpose that this was done so that the national government was kept as weak as possible; each state only had one vote in Congress, regardless of their size; Congress did not have the power to tax nor did they have the power to control trade (which was something that was needed to keep the finances of America over water); there was no national court system (criminals were free to run wild; no steady judgments were made by any laws); and the states refused to finance the national government. These were just a few of the noticeably problems. In 1786, a rebellion is western Massachusetts protested the rising debt and economy chaos†¦but the national government was unable to assemble to a military force to help out it down, something else seen as needing to be fixed as soon as possible. For these reasons, the Articles of Confederation failed. (Kelly, 2012) The Federalist Papers are a significant piece to our nation’s history. People were set with the Articles of Confederation as being the only constitution they needed, but as the years went by, more things made it clear that a revision, or a whole new document for that matters, was needed to address the current states of the Union. It took some persuading to get the Constitution ratified, and the 85 essays written by Hamilton, Madison and Jay helped persuade the American people to define the United States as we know it today. References Federalist Papers. (2012). Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Federalist_Papers. The Federalist Papers. (2002). Retrieved from http://www. crf-usa. org/foundations-of-our-constitution/the-federalist-papers. html. Kelly, M. (2012). Why Did the Articles of Confederation Fall? Retrieved from http://americanhistory. about. com/od/governmentandpolitics/f/articles_of_confe deration_fails. htm. Peacock, Anthony A. (n. d. ). First Principles Series. The Federalist Papers. Retrieved from http://www. heritage. org/initiatives/first-principles/primary-sources/the-federalist-papers. Why did the Articles of Confederation fail? (2012). Retrieved from http://essayinfo. com/sample/essay/465. Essay Info – Essay Writing Center. How to cite Federalist Papers, Essay examples

Discuss the ways in which a novelist explores the condition of the human heart in The great Gatsby Essay Example For Students

Discuss the ways in which a novelist explores the condition of the human heart in The great Gatsby Essay In the novel The great Gatsby, the novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald explores the conditions of the human heart through relationships that occur in this story. The relationships between Daisy and Tom Buchanan, Myrtle and Tom, Myrtle and George Wilson and Nick and Jordan, all are flawed by the selfishness of individuals and lack of actual love. Fitzgerald compares this to the time era the novel is set in, the 1920s. This was a time of false security in that the economy was going to stay high foreverthe crash soon followed and false hope in the American dream. The relationships like this false sense of security looked good, but were built on nothing and so crashed. The contrast to this was the relationship between Daisy and Gatsby, although not successful, it was built on something more than the selfish and shallow needs of individuals. The first relationship that is explored in this novel is Daisy and Tom Buchanan. Their relationship is one that looks ideal. Tom is the typical hero, one of the most powerful ends at New Haven, hulking muscle mass with a personality to match and very wealthy. Daisy is the very beautiful, soft spoken and witty girl in which everyone loves. Together they perfect examples of the American dream. But as we see at Nicks first visit to the Buchanans, there is a sense of real love lacking from their relationship, shown by their interactions. Its romantic, isnt it, Tom? The relationship is based on money and the social scene of the wealthy rather than actual love for each other. But because they are similar characters in the way that their values are built on money and wealth, they do stay together and why Daisy doesnt marry Gatsby. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦retreated back into their money or vast carelessness, or whatever it was that kept them together,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Tom feels the lack of love from his relationship with Daisy, but is too stupid to actually realise it, and because that is the relationship he should according to the American dream be in, will never realise it. We see this in his restless behaviour. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Tom would drift on forever, a little wistfully, for the dramatic turbulence of some irrecoverable football game. This is what makes Tom have mistresses such as Myrtle Wilson. This relationship replaces what lacks from his relationship with Daisy. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦no facet or gleam of beauty, but there was an immediately perceptible vitality about herà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Although he does love Myrtle and they are very affectionate, he could never marry her as she is not from a wealthy background. The relationship between George and Myrtle is the raw product of this American dream. Just as shallow and hopeless as other relationships such as Daisy and Toms, but without the money to cover it up and make it look pretty. Significantly, they live in the Valley of Ashes, which is the depiction of the wealthy peoples souls, dirty and lifeless. The reason Myrtle and George do stay together for that 11 years is because of security and there being nothing else. The emptiness of this relationship is illustrated by Myrtles selfishness and uncaring to Georges feelings when she starts seeing Tom. The irony to this is that she is drawn to Tom by this false sense of hope that he is going to save her. Even though he often treats her badly, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦he broke her nose with his open hand. She is drawn to him because he is wealthy and brawn, everything a woman should be attracted to. This selfishness and lack of real love is what stops the relationship between Nick and Jordan from being successful. .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb , .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .postImageUrl , .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb , .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb:hover , .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb:visited , .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb:active { border:0!important; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb:active , .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u2782c818146493ffe3ab08dc4aa16acb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Literary Analysis of Masque of the Red Death EssayThis was dictated by their unpassionate, almost protective personalities. There relationship was never based on anything except keeping each other company and filling a gap they both had. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦so I drew up the girl beside me, tightening my arms. There was no real connection between them, that girl could have been anyone. Even though Jordan was obviously hurt when Nick wanted to break up with her, this wasnt because she loved him, but because he surprised her that he would do that, being poorer, and also that she did in fact enjoy his company. Nick was in love with Jordan, but knew he just loved the company and because of the previous events that occurred in his move east, he had had enough and knew he had to leave. The one relationship that was built on something more than the selfish needs of individuals was the relationship between Daisy and Gatsby. They shared something special and were actually in love. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦they looked back at me, remotely, possessed by intense life. But again, selfishness of an individual plagued the hopes of this one true relationship. Because Gatsbys wealth status did not fit Daisys ideals American dream He was forced to leave her in search of money. Because he was so in love, he didnt think twice about the ridiculousness of what he was doing,, and how selfish it was of Daisy to expect him to do so. And even though he did get his fortune, this still did not satisfy Daisy. Tom had old money, the lifestyle, the personality. This is what Daisy was used to and married Tom for. Her voice was full of money. It was something Gatsby would never have as we see by her dislike to Gatsbys parties and so, in the end Daisy stays with Tom. I dont think Fitzgerald is trying to say that there is no hope for true love to succeed, He is just saying that the human heart is easily blinded by such things as the American dream. This is exaggerated at this time era because there was so much hope in the economy and in money, that people lost sight of what would really bring them true happiness. The unsuccessfulness of Daisy and Gatsbys relationship really shows us how much of a shame it is that true love is destroyed by selfishness and I think it is Fitzgeralds warning to the reader, not to be blinded by money and other shallow temptations, as we will end up as depressed as the characters in his novel.

Reflection Paper Religion in America

The Social Significance of the Megachurch A megachurch refers to a church that has two thousand or more worshippers in a normal weekend attendance. In the United States, there are more than one thousand three hundred megachurches. Among these churches, approximately fifty of them record an attendance of ten to forty seven thousand members.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Reflection Paper: Religion in America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is worth pointing out that while three thousand individual Catholic churches have two thousand or more members during a normal Sunday Mass, they are included in the megachurch movement (Johnstone 60). In Protestant Christianity, megachurches are regarded as an extremely vital development. In the US, these congregations have increased four times in the previous twenty years. Megachurches have greatly impacted on the American society. In addition to the normal church services , members receive a wide array of secular amenities. These include recreational services, sports, social care and health, and education. The demographic profile of the megachurches is composed of middle- class, white households (Radcliffe-Brown 39). Moreover, these churches are founded in extensive urban borders of cities that are growing rapidly. In my opinion, megachurches are diverting Christians to secular public practices. Moreover, the additional services provide exurban people with a personalized civic setting, thereby the opportunity to mingle within a standardized and secure setting. Another interesting quote is that megachurches are an elite ethical community that enhances segregation patterns. In addition, they are slowly contributing to withdrawal and secession processes. Not only have megachurches impacted on social, but also political life. They are actively involved in campaigns and presidential elections in regard to conservative social concerns. This has made them v ital political actors. Urban places contain complete subsections, which are characterised by autonomous growth. My take is that the self- contained nodes are connected by telecommunication and highway systems. However, it is sad to note that these sites are isolated from adjacent sites (Johnstone 6). It is worth noting that fortification and privatization has increased greatly in urban places. My opinion is that these are the moves of affluent groups to isolate themselves physically from the public. Moreover, they also aim at separating from desperate social groups. These are composed of the destitute, homeless, poor, and desperate. Therefore, the affluent groups protect themselves from moral confusion that might result from their interaction with minority groups. Megachurches encourage volunteerism, contributions, and frequent attendance (Radcliffe-Brown 43). It is worth pointing out that megachurches are no longer worship places. They are multi- purpose places including malls, res orts, town squares, and extended families. They use proficient corporate practices and deal with multi- million budgets. Although, megachurches are isolated physically, they are exceptionally universally connected.Advertising Looking for essay on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Future of Religion in America It is worth noting that the USA is an exceptionally religious nation. According to a political scientist, Robert Putman, an average American is by a large extent more religious compared to an average Iranian. For the previous fifty years, Americans have become extremely polarized in politics and religion. Before, there was no link between how often an individual attended church services, and their political vote. However, this is no longer the case (Johnstone 106). Currently, the bond between politics and religion is growing stronger each day. The religious communities in America contribute greatly t o the nation’s democracy. However, exceptionally high doses of religion end up intoxicating civic life (Radcliffe-Brown 34). Numerous countries admit that US is a diverse, religiously committed, and amazingly tolerant. There has been an escalation in people’s interactions across religious confines, which is a silent undercurrent. In my opinion, these interactions also include intermarriages, which go beyond the contemporary religious demarcations. In addition, people have a high likelihood of shifting from one religion to another, which was uncommon several years ago. My take is that religious shifts will increase more in future. Individuals from various religious backgrounds were overwhelmed when they were permitted voice their opinion in the public sphere. However, the young people were not impressed when politics and religion merged in the 1980s. During this period, many people withdrew from the organized religions. I approximate that five percent of the entire popu lation in America belong to no religion (Johnstone 56). Furthermore, there are thirty percent youths who are not attached to any religion. My take is that this number will increase greatly in future. According to these youths, they belong to God as opposed to a recognizable religion. I think that the level of religiosity in America will reduce greatly in future. This is attributable to the fact that since the young generation has no concern for religion; this habit will be carried on into their adulthood. In addition, younger generations will copy this habit. Americans youths are arguing that if religion is all about homophobia and conservative politics, then they have nothing to do with it. A good quote to note is that a transformation of religion in America will impact on the social arena, individual morality, and public life. There, there is a need for private and public sectors to think of the future impacts of changes on religion. Consequently, they will be able to react with a vivid vision and creativity. Works Cited Johnstone, Ronald. Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion. New York: Prentice Hall, 2004. Print.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Reflection Paper: Religion in America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred R. â€Å"Religion and society.† The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 75.1/2 (1945): 33-43. Print. This essay on Reflection Paper: Religion in America was written and submitted by user Melissa U. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Workplace As A Socialization Agent

WORKPLACE AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT Norms and values in the workplace are powerful influences that I have benefited greatly from. My socialization in the workplace began about twenty years ago and is an ongoing learning experience. Some norms and values that I feel influenced me the most are appearance, the proper use of the chain of command, the need for education, the personality I exhibit and honesty. The dress code within the workplace is a norm whether formal or informal will generate many negative responses if not adhered too. Past experiences made me learn on how to dress appropriately. At my first office job I was informed the dress code was â€Å"business casual†. When I arrived at work on several different occasions with skirts 5 inches above my knees and tight fitting shirts I experienced some hostility from co-workers. This then caused me to feel some negative emotional consequences such as embarrassment and self-consciousness. These negative sanctions caused me to obtain better clarification of the term â€Å"business casual† from my parents. The military had strict formal norms in regards to the pathway of communication within the workplace. This process is referred to as the chain of command, if not followed correctly will lead to negative sanctions. I joined the military immediately after completing high school. Upon arrival everyone was given all the names, ranks and pictures of the individuals in our chain of command. With the above information we were also instructed on the process and the negative sanctions that would occur if not adhered too properly. Since this experience I have had jobs that may not have had a formal norm in regards to the process of communication, but informal ones. The regulations were not written down but were adopted behaviors over time. Using what I had learned in the military had brought me positive sanctions in jobs that had followed. I had experienced sexual harassment ... Free Essays on Workplace As A Socialization Agent Free Essays on Workplace As A Socialization Agent WORKPLACE AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT Norms and values in the workplace are powerful influences that I have benefited greatly from. My socialization in the workplace began about twenty years ago and is an ongoing learning experience. Some norms and values that I feel influenced me the most are appearance, the proper use of the chain of command, the need for education, the personality I exhibit and honesty. The dress code within the workplace is a norm whether formal or informal will generate many negative responses if not adhered too. Past experiences made me learn on how to dress appropriately. At my first office job I was informed the dress code was â€Å"business casual†. When I arrived at work on several different occasions with skirts 5 inches above my knees and tight fitting shirts I experienced some hostility from co-workers. This then caused me to feel some negative emotional consequences such as embarrassment and self-consciousness. These negative sanctions caused me to obtain better clarification of the term â€Å"business casual† from my parents. The military had strict formal norms in regards to the pathway of communication within the workplace. This process is referred to as the chain of command, if not followed correctly will lead to negative sanctions. I joined the military immediately after completing high school. Upon arrival everyone was given all the names, ranks and pictures of the individuals in our chain of command. With the above information we were also instructed on the process and the negative sanctions that would occur if not adhered too properly. Since this experience I have had jobs that may not have had a formal norm in regards to the process of communication, but informal ones. The regulations were not written down but were adopted behaviors over time. Using what I had learned in the military had brought me positive sanctions in jobs that had followed. I had experienced sexual harassment ...

Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Article - Essay Example For instance, research outcomes show that the current increase of cancer patients results of the high consumption of food processing chemical. Most of the chemicals usually come from the agricultural farms. Eco-friendly agricultural practices include practicing organic farming that does not require the use of chemicals like in industrial farming. It also includes processing and preserving foods without toxic chemicals. Most of industrial foods contain highly poisonous preservatives and they contribute to the humans’ poor health. In addition, other products that qualify to be eco-friendly are those that are biodegradable. These are products, which can be broken down by bacteria during the decomposition process. Going green does not involve the production of the non-biodegradable goods because they cause soil degradation (Holzer & Media 1). One of the eco-friendly practices includes the minimum usage of resources while maximizing the outputs. This helps in the prevention of the natural resource wastage. An example of these practices includes turning off the lights when not using them. This helps in energy conservation. The other eco-friendly practices include the high usage of the public vehicles instead of the private ones. This also helps in energy conservation and reduction of air pollution. The increase in the number of vehicle has resulted into the current high level of air pollution. This is because the high amount of exhaust fumes produced by the vehicle cause air pollution especially in the metropolitan areas. The usage of public vehicles helps in the reduction of the number of vehicles that in turn reduces the amount of air pollutants. Other eco-friendly practices include the recycling or reusing of resources. This helps in preventing the overexploitation of the available natural resources. It also helps in th e reduction of wastes especially the non-biodegradable wastes. Recycling of

Reading response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 33

Reading response - Essay Example A Thousand Plateaus is the main writing from which pleasures of philosophy are found where the main article is molded in terms of the different settings where a reader can read any article or plateau. There is no systematic order of the reading to come up with a clear meaning, although the plateaus do not give the final words (Massumi, 17). A plateau can be defined as an orchestration of crushing bricks extracted from a variety of disciplinary edifices where it carry’s traces of its former emplacement which gives it a spin defining the arc of its vector (Massumi, 19). This shows the dependence and interdependency of the plateaus that makes the notes seem like repetition, whereas they are also melodic in nature, where one only reads what he wants to read or what is interesting to him. This notion is what Brian termed, as the pleasures of philosophy since he noted that philosophy is complex and when it is not understood, it is boring thus, the different nature of the plateaus ensures each reader is able to at least understand and embrace one of the plateaus. The different plateaus that have a common spin portray the unity even in the real nature where people have different understanding and embrace different things, although their objectives may be similar (Massumi, 27). Pleasures of Philosophy being a plateau within A Thousand Plateaus talks more about ticks, quilts, fuzzy subsets, neurology and political economy. This unrelated subject makes it difficult to understand as the plateau is dedicated to music and animal behavior. It uses a difficult technical expression retrieved from different disciplines used in the humanities, mathematics, and the sciences, but whose authors recommend that you read it as you would listen to a record. This complexity ensures that each reader is able to come up with a sovereign judgment of the issues discussed in the plateau. The exercise to ensure one is able to give a good judgment is essential, even in the

Poem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Poem - Essay Example Collins â€Å"Introduction to Poetry,† consist of seven stanzas. Collins opens the first stanza with the line, â€Å"I ask them to take a poem.† This sentence contains three objects: â€Å"I† – the writer or speaker, â€Å"them† – the listeners and â€Å"poem.† The poet urges to â€Å"take† the poem as an object and not just scan or read it. By comparing â€Å"poem† as an object, Collins uses the metaphor as the figurative language. Once â€Å"poem† is considered as an object; then it can be compared to any other objects. That is why one can notice abundant use of metaphor for â€Å"poem† throughout this work. In the second line, the speaker asks, â€Å"and hold it up to the light† instead of asking to read it. However, when this line is coupled with the third line, â€Å"like a color slide† everything becomes apparent. Collins uses figurative language simile - the object â€Å"poem† is a color slide. Of course, projection of a color slide has to be done using light. The poet creates a strong imagery in the first stanza that says one can see all seven colors of the rainbow in the poem if one knows how to hold it to the light and see it. The second stanza consists of one line; Collins electrifies the reader with intrigue, â€Å"or press an ear against its hive.† He uses the metaphor and compares â€Å"poem† to a honey-drippy hive that produces a buzzing sound as well as conveys both danger and anticipation. The third stanza, â€Å"I say drop a mouse into a poem, and watch him probe his way out† compares â€Å"poem† to a â€Å"labyrinth.† The preposition â€Å"into† instead of â€Å"onto† makes the stanza rigid defining â€Å"poem† as a three-dimensional object. Through this metaphor, the poet states that one has to understand the labyrinth of the poem to get out of it. In the fourth stanza, Collins uses double metaphors; compares the â€Å"poem† to a three-dimensional room and content of

The National Power In International Relations Politics Essay

The National Power In International Relations Politics Essay Power in international relations is defined in several different ways. Political scientists, historians, and practitioners of international relations (diplomats) have used the following concepts of political power: Power as a goal of states or leaders. Power as a measure of influence or control over outcomes, events, actors and issues. Power as reflecting victory in conflict and the attainment of security Power as control over resources and capabilities. Modern discourse generally speaks in terms of state power, indicating both economic and military power. Those states that have significant amounts of power within the international system are referred to as middle powers, regional powers, great powers, superpowers, or hyperpowers. Entities other than states can also acquire and wield power in international relations. Such entities can include multilateral international organizations, military alliance organizations (e.g. NATO), multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, or other institutions such as the Roman Catholic Church, Wal-Mart[1], or the Hanseatic League. Power as a goal Primary usage of power as a goal in international relations belongs to political theorists, such as Niccolà ² Machiavelli and Hans Morgenthau. Especially among Classical Realist thinkers, power is an inherent goal of mankind and of states. Economic growth, military growth, cultural spread etc can all be considered as working towards the ultimate goal of international Power as influence. Political scientists principally use power in terms of an actors ability to exercise influence over other actors within the international system. This influence can be coercive, attractive, cooperative, or competitive. Mechanisms of influence can include the threat or use of force, economic interaction or pressure, diplomacy, and cultural exchange. Spheres, blocs, and alliances Under certain circumstances, states can organize a sphere of influence or a bloc within which they exercise predominant influence. Historical examples include the spheres of influence recognized under the Concert of Europe, or the recognition of spheres during the Cold War following the Yalta Conference. The Warsaw Pact, the Free World, and the Non-Aligned Movement were the blocs that arose out of the Cold War contest. Military alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact are another forum through which influence is exercised. However, Realist theory often attempts to stay away from the creation of powerful blocs/spheres that can create a hegemon within the region. British foreign policy, for example, has always sided against the hegemonic forces on the continent, i.e. Nazi Germany, Napoleonic France or Habsburg Austria. Power as security Power is also used when describing states or actors that have achieved military victories or security for their state in the international system. This general usage is most commonly found among the writings of historians or popular writers. For instance, a state that has achieved a string of combat victories in a military campaign against other states can be described as powerful. An actor that has succeeded in protecting its security, sovereignty, or strategic interests from repeated or significant challenge can also be described as powerful. Power as capability Power is the capacity to direct the decisions and actions of others. Power derives from strength and will. Strength comes from the transformation of resources into capabilities. Will infuses objectives with resolve. Strategy marshals capabilities and brings them to bear with precision. Statecraft seeks through strategy to magnify the mass, relevance, impact, and irresistibility of power. It guides the ways the state deploys and applies its power abroad. These ways embrace the arts of war, espionage, and diplomacy. The practitioners of these three arts are the paladins of statecraft. Charles W. Freeman, Jr. Power is also used to describe the resources and capabilities of a state. This definition is quantitative and is most often used by geopoliticians and the military. Capabilities are thought of in tangible terms-they are measurable, weighable, quantifiable assets. Thomas Hobbes spoke of power as present means to obtain some future apparent good. Hard Power can be treated as a potential and is not often enforced on the international stage. Chinese strategists have such a concept of national power that can be measured quantitatively using an index known as comprehensive national power. Soft versus hard power Some political scientists distinguish between two types of power: soft and hard. The former is attractive while the latter is coercive. Joseph Nye is the leading proponent and theorist of soft power. Instruments of soft power include debates on cultural values, dialogues on ideology, the attempt to influence through good example, and the appeal to commonly accepted human values. Means of exercising soft power include diplomacy, dissemination of information, analysis, propaganda, and cultural programming to achieve political ends. Hard power refers to coercive tactics: the threat or use of armed forces, economic pressure or sanctions, assassination and subterfuge, or other forms of intimidation. Hard power is generally associated to the stronger of nations, as the ability to change the domestic affairs of other nations through military threats. CORE CONCEPT Why is power important to international relations ? Undoubtedly power acts as a major theme within the study of international relations, yet as a concept it is highly contested and difficult if not impossible to define. The oxford concise dictionary of politics attempts to define power as the ability to make people (or things) do what they would not otherwise have done. However power can be seen in many different forms be it that of economic, political, military or psychological. Within the many different theories of international relations the concept of power features widely yet its interpretation and significance differs throughout. As there are so many theories within the study of international relations is impossible to focus on them all and so I have decided to predominantly look at the ideas within realism. In post war scholarship the starting point for most theorizing about international politics has been power and national interest, with power understood ultimately as a military capability and interest as an egotistic desire for power, security or wealth. The proposition that the nature of international politics is shaped by power relations is noted as a defining characteristic of realism. However this is not only a realist claim, neoliberals to see power as important along with Marxists, feminists and post modernists. Yet first by looking at the concept of power in a broad sense, free of persific theoretical judgement in order to get a preliminary understanding of the term itself. International politics clearly occurs between all states through which administrative transactions occur involving the use of power. It can therefore be argued that all international politics are in a sense power politics Within the contemporary international system the majority of nations collective domestic and external goals cannot be defended or achieved without influencing the behaviour of other states. Consequently goal attainment is dependent upon the reactions and actions of others. This is where the importance of power as a concept comes into the study of international politics because power includes the means by which all states influence the behaviour of others in order to protect and extend their own interests. This probability is able to exist because states pursue various interests and can agree or disagree on any one of them pursuing them individually. Categories of power In the modern geopolitical landscape, a number of terms are used to describe powers of various types, these include: Hyperpower coined to describe the post-Cold War United States or the British Empire shortly after the Napoleonic wars. Superpower Fox (1944) defined the Superpower as great power plus great mobility of power and identified 3 states, the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. Great power in historical mentions, the term Great power refers to any nations that have strong political, cultural and economic influence over nations around it and across the world. (Examples: China, France, India, Russia, Germany, and the United Kingdom.) Middle power a subjective description of second-tier influential states that could not be described as Great powers. (Examples: Japan, South Korea, Canada, Australia, The Netherlands, and Israel.) The term Regional power is also used to describe a nation that exercises influence and power within a region. Being a regional power is not mutually exclusive with any of the above categories. The term Energy superpower describes a country that has immense influence or even direct control over much of the worlds energy supplies. Russia and Saudi Arabia are generally acknowledged as the worlds two current energy superpowers, given their abilities to globally influence or even directly control prices to certain countries. The term entertainment superpower or culture superpower describes a country in which has immense influence or even direct control over much of the worlds entertainment or has an immense large cultural influence on much of the world. Although this is debated on who meets such criteria, many agree that the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan are generally acknowledged as the entertainment and cultural superpowers, given their abilities to distribute their entertainment and cultural innovations worldwide. Categories of power (Diagramatic representation) C:Documents and SettingsDellMy DocumentsMy PicturesPowers_in_international_relations.png Map reflecting the categories of power in international relations.   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Superpowersà  Ã‚ ¦Ã‚ ¼   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Great powers   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Regional power   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Middle powers ELEMENTS OF POWER The elements of a countrys power can be roughly categorized as those that constitute: Its national core Its national infrastructure Its national economy Its military The core and infrastructure form the basis for economic and military power. The national core consists of a countrys technological sophistication , its transportation system and its information and communication capabilities. CONCLUSION Power is the foundation of diplomacy in a conflictual world. National power is the sum of a countrys assets that enhance its ability to get its way even when opposed by others with different interests and goals. Measuring power is especially difficult as the efforts to do so have not been very successful but it helps us to see many of the complexities of analyzing the characters of power . These characteristics include the facts that power is dynamic , both objective and subjective, relative, situational and multidimensional.

The Effect of John Keats Health on His Work Essay -- Biography Biogra

The Effect of John Keats' Health on His Work      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In his elegy for the poet John Keats, Adonais, his friend and fellow poet Percy Bysshe Shelley writes: "With me / Died Adonais; till the Future dares / Forget the Past, his fate and fame shall be / An echo and a light unto eternity" (6-9).   Shelley speaks of the eternal nature of Keats' poetry, which, although written at a specific time in literary history, addresses timeless issues such as life, death, love, sorrow, and poetic expression.   Keats lived only twenty-six years, but his poetry reflects a mind concerned with his own place in the present and the future; he seemed to want most desperately to belong to the world as a poet.   Perhaps he felt this way because he knew, once he was diagnosed with tuberculosis, that he would not live long and would, therefore, have less time in which to write and to say what he wanted to say.   He has been described as "the most significant mythical figure of the tubercular poet in Britain" (Lawlor and Suzuki 488).   Keats' knowledge of his illness affected his work to the extent that his readers often feel his own sense of sorrow and impatience as he tries to express his creative ideas in the brief time which he knows he will have.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   John Keats was born on Halloween in 1795 in London, the oldest of four children (Keats).   Keats' father died when the poet was only eight years old (Keats), and the resulting trauma and anxiety that it caused his family seems to have affected him deeply.   As one critic states, these events contributed "to his mature sense that the career of the artist was an exploration o... ...H. Abrams, et.al. New York: Norton, 2000. 851-853.    ---. "Ode to a Nightingale." The Norton Anthology of English Literature, volume 2. Seventh edition.   Ed. M.H. Abrams, et.al. New York: Norton, 2000. 849-851.    ---. "When I Have Fears." The Norton Anthology of English Literature, volume 2.   Seventh edition.   Ed. M.H. Abrams, et.al. New York: Norton, 2000.   833-834.    Lawlor, Clark and Akihito Suzuki. "The Disease of the Self: Representing Comsumption, 1700-  Ã‚   1830." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 74.3 (2000): 458-494.   The Gale Group. Literature Resource Center.   Union County Coll. Lib., Cranford, NJ. 27 March 2003.    Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Adonais.   The Norton Anthology of English Literature, volume 2. Seventh edition.   Ed. M.H. Abrams, et.al. New York: Norton, 2000.   772-786.

Trace the treatment of the Jews by the Nazis between 1933-45

During the hegemony that engulfed Europe between 1939 and 1945, millions of civilians were murdered, outside of the usual battles of war. The hegemony was unprecedented in the annals of history in that the murder of these civilians had its roots not in the causes of the war, but simply in the prejudice that lay at the heart of the political system that had spawned the war, namely the Nazi ideology formed in the insane minds of Adolf Hitler and his henchmen. To that ideology, the creation of a master race of Aryans with all other â€Å"lower† races becoming servile to that master race was logical and a side product of that ambition was the ethnic cleansing of Europe. The initial plan was to move eastwards all such lower races. In due course however, as the ambitions of the Nazis were initially fulfilled, the problem increased. The pathetic irony for Hitler and his cronies was that the very success of their armies brought under their control even more of the undesirables whom they wished to expel from Germany, so that ultimately far from making the Jewish problem disappear, they brought under their control a further 5,000,000 Jews even before the proposed invasions of Russia and Great Britain, the entire gypsy community of Europe and millions of Slavs in the eastern countries of Europe. The problem was to be solved by the â€Å"Final Solution†. Initially the attentions of the Nazis in the immediate years after their ascendancy to power was directed at a widespread cleansing of Germany. This included primarily Jews and communists, Romany (gypsy) people, homosexuals, those who were mentally and / or physically handicapped and those deemed to be â€Å"politically undesirable†. The initial beatings and tirades against these sections of German society however in due course gave way to a more systematic and co-ordinated campaign designed to enable the authorities to rid society of these â€Å"undesirable† elements. Propaganda under the control of Josef Goebbels was employed to ostracize these elements within German society and make their removal both logical and welcome to the average German citizen. Hitler's satanic vision of â€Å"ethnic purity† was based on the idea of levels of genetic value in people. To fulfil Hitler's dream, the Nazi's established comprehensive systems to segregate and later to execute millions of people designated to be less pure. After the succession to power by Adolf Hitler in 1933, an internal security apparatus in the form of a secret police force was designed and continually refined to result in an iron control of the lives of the citizens within Germany. Perfected, this orderly, internal reign of terror spread, as Hitler's forces extended across national borders and with the relatively easy absorption of what had been part of Czechoslovakia, the annexation of Bohemia and Moravia by Germany in 1938. Slovakia, another region of Czechoslovakia, became a state tightly controlled by the Nazis through the Munich Pact signed with the British Government, which naively believed that this concession would mark the end of Hitler's ambitions. On the evening of November 7, 1938, the Nazi regime co-ordinated attacks against the Jewish communities of Germany. Nearly 180 synagogues were burned and destroyed. Hundreds of Jewish men were rounded up and imprisoned on false charges. Jewish-owned businesses throughout Germany were destroyed, damaged and looted. Thousands of windows in synagogues, Jewish businesses and homes were broken giving this night its name – â€Å"Kristallnacht† or the Night of the Broken Glass. This horrific assault was reported in headlines in newspapers around the world. It was taken correctly by some as a signal of what was yet to come and many Jews, taking the warning seriously, emigrated while they still could. However only the United States of America and to a lesser degree Great Britain were prepared to admit Jews seeking sanctuary. Certain countries, notably Switzerland and France were not keen to allow the refugees to stay within their borders. The fact that no country wished to admit the Jews, seemed to validate Hitler's actions in treating them increasingly more harshly. Visas were hard to come by, but bribery and connections still worked in limited ways. Tragically, most Jews remained, believing Germany was democratic, a country for whom many had served with honour and distinction in World War I. They refused to believe that it would turn against them and harm them. They were fatally mistaken and a massive percentage of the entire German Jewish community suffered horribly, dying in the extermination camps before the end of World War II. By September 1, 1939, contrary to the protestations, the completely restored military force of Nazi Germany smashed across the Polish border, overrunning the weak Polish army and cavalry, still equipped for World War I. By the end of the month all of Poland had fallen. Now 3,000,000 Jews came under the control of the swastika, 20 per cent the Polish population in 1939. Almost immediately, these Jews were placed into ghettos in Warsaw, Kracow, and other large Polish cities and towns, with little sanitation and access to medical facilities. Stopped from trading and effectively cut off from the rest of the world, these communities were effectively isolated, being prepared and â€Å"softened up† for further more drastic treatment. Concentration and labour camps were initially established for punishment for those who offended Hitler or did not fit his ideal Nazi regime. As early as 1933 in Germany, Sachsenhausen and Dachau were places of dread but families were still able to â€Å"bribe† their loved ones out of the camps. Following the invasion of Poland the Nazis were faced with resolving the â€Å"Jewish Problem†. The solution was entrusted by Hitler to Heydrich and Eichmann, both virulent anti-semites, the former a soldier, the latter an administrator. The concentration camps, now full following larger and larger transports of Jews and large numbers of Russian prisoners of war, Polish resistance fighters and others, had to be emptied. Natural wastage by death from disease, malnutrition and beatings would not result in a fast enough solution. Mass murder by bullets or lethal injection was expensive and wasteful in terms of resources, and had a morale depressing effect on the soldiers employed. To accommodate Hitler's demonic vision, On January 20, 1942, a conference was convened under expressed orders from Nazi leadership under the chairmanship of the brilliantly evil Rheinhardt Heydrich. With tea and crumpets, in fewer than two hours of deliberation at the former Jewish-owned Wansee chateau in the outskirts of Berlin, the Nazi officers, including Aldolph Eichmann, created the policy to assure the systematic destruction of Europe's Jewish population. A Final Solution had been formed which was unchangeable. The solution chosen was the creation of mass Extermination Camps, mainly in Poland to which would be transported all the Jews of Europe. Killing began in earnest on or near the homes of the populations, which the Nazis had targeted. Within a short time, the small camp of Auschwitz was enlarged into Auschwitz-Birkenau) a massive death camp in which Jews were gassed and their bodies cremated in a nearby area known for its birch trees, (Birkenau in German). Thus, the infamous death factory at Birkenau was created with the huge crematoria nestled among the groves of once beautiful and peaceful birch trees. Five other sites were chosen for additional death camps. Auschwitz-Birkenau, as the huge complex was to become known, was by far the largest in which well over one million and a half people, nearly 90 percent of whom were Jewish, were put to death and cremated. Notwithstanding the need to continue the huge war effort against the Allied Forces, which included the massively powerful American war machine the Nazis vigorously pursued their plan to destroy every Jew within Europe. As a result, one third of the entire world Jewish population was killed during the Holocaust. The few gates of escape to Allied countries, were systematically closed: the United States, Canada, Australia, Britain, parts of Latin America and elsewhere. The lucky few who could find a way out often survived without the rest of their family. By 1944, the height of the extermination of the Jews, there were over 650 death, labour, concentration, camps and ghettos. Of the millions of Jewish people so imprisoned a very small percentage survived to give testimony to the unimaginable crimes which had been committed. Those who did so survive, faced the prospect of reconstructing their lives, more often than not with no money, family, possessions or state. Hitler had identified the â€Å"problem† in Mein Kampf, had thought that he had solved the problem by expelling the Jews of Germany, but ultimately had found that his success in battle multiplied his problem, from which there was to be only one route for the Nazis to take – the eradication of European Jewry by extermination.

Iron Ore Dressing Technology

Iron ore dressing technology Magnetite ore dressing mainly use magnetic separator for sorting of low grade magnetite. Due to the strong magnetic ore,it is good wear and good election,Domestic magnetic separation plants use stage grinding and multi-stage grinding process,the coarse grained dissemination magnetite use the former process(one stage grinding),fine particle and micro-fine particle-disseminated magnetite using the latter (two or three stage grinding);Weakly magnetic iron ore dressing, is mainly used for separation of hematite, limonite, hematite, siderite, hematite or mixed ore,the so-called â€Å"Red Rock†.Grade of this kind ores is low,they have fine dissemination size, complex mineral composition,difficult sorting. http://www. shzbm. com rotary kiln http://www. pe750. com jaw crusher dressing technology for roasting, wet high intensity magnetic separation, weak magnetic flotation, and the gravity concentration process,Equipment and new varieties of pharmaceutical research improve continuously, so that the concentrate grade, metal recovery improve continuously. Such as the concentrator use weak magnetic – magnetic – flotation process.Iron ore dressing mainly give priority to magnetic separation,While the basic requirement is the Mineral magnetism, Magnetite can be directly obtained iron ore concentrate after magnetic separation,If it is hematite limonite ore or the other in order to get more than 65% grade iron concentrate,We must through magnetization roasting magnetic separation for the reduction of magnetite,Higher levels of impurities in the ore such as hematite, it is necessary that reduces impurity through the flotation. http://www. pe600. com ball mill http://www. mining-ss. com rotary kiln http://www. machine-ss. com ball mill manufacture

abstract expressiom Essay

abstract expressiom Essay abstract expressiom Essay A new vanguard emerged in the early 1940s, primarily in New York, where a small group of loosely affiliated artists created a stylistically diverse body of work that introduced radical new directions in art- and shifted the art world's focus. Never a formal association, the artists known as "Abstract Expressionists" or "The New York School" did, however, share some common assumptions. Among others, artists such as Jackson Pollock (1912–1956), Willem de Kooning (1904–1997), Franz Kline (1910–1962), Lee Krasner (1908–1984), Robert Motherwell (1915–1991), William Baziotes (1912–1963), Mark Rothko (1903–1970), Barnett Newman (1905–1970), Adolph Gottlieb (1903–1974), Richard Pousette-Dart (1916–1992), and Clyfford Still (1904–1980) advanced audacious formal inventions in a search for significant content. Breaking away from accepted conventions in both technique and subject matter, the artists made monumentally sc aled works that stood as reflections of their individual psyches- and in doing so, attempted to tap into universal inner sources. These artists valued spontaneity and improvisation, and they accorded the highest importance to process. Their work resists stylistic categorization, but it can be clustered around two basic inclinations: an emphasis on dynamic, energetic gesture, in contrast to a reflective, cerebral focus on more open fields of color. In either case, the imagery was primarily abstract. Even when depicting images based on visual realities, the Abstract Expressionists favored a highly abstracted mode. Abstract Expressionism developed in the context of diverse, overlapping sources and inspirations. Many of the young artists had made their start in the 1930s. The Great Depression yielded two popular art movements, Regionalism and Social Realism, neither of which satisfied this group of artists' desire to find a content rich with meaning and redolent of social responsibility, yet free of provincialism and explicit politics. The Great Depression also spurred the development of government relief programs, including the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a jobs program for unemployed Americans in which many of the group participated, and which allowed so many artists to establish a career path. But it was the exposure to and assimilation of European modernism that set the stage for the most advanced American art. There were several venues in New York for seeing avant-garde art from Europe. The Museum of Modern Art had opened in 1929, and there artists saw a rapidly growing collection acquired by director Alfred H. Barr, Jr. They were also exposed to groundbreaking temporary exhibitions of new work, including Cubism and Abstract Art (1936), Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism (1936–37), and retrospectives of , Là ©ger, and , among others. Another forum for viewing the most advanced art was Albert Gallatin's Museum of Living Art, which was housed at New York University from 1927 to 1943. There the Abstract Expressionists saw the work of Mondrian, Gabo, El Lissitzky, and others. The forerunner of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum- the Museum of Non-Objective Painting- opened in 1939. Even prior to that date, its collection of Kandinskys had been publicly exhibited several t imes. The lessons of European modernism were also disseminated through teaching. The German expatriate Hans Hofmann (1880–1966) became the most influential teacher of modern art in the United States, and his impact reached both artists and critics. The crisis of war and its aftermath are key to understanding the concerns of the Abstract Expressionists. These young artists, troubled by man's dark side and anxiously aware of human irrationality and vulnerability, wanted to express their concerns in a new art of meaning and substance. Direct contact with European artists increased as a result of World War II, which caused so many- including Dalà ­, Ernst, Masson, Breton, Mondrian, and Là ©ger- to seek refuge in the U.S. The opened up new possibilities with their

Air Asia Case analysis summary Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Air Asia analysis summary - Case Study Example The firm is one of the airline organizations who are more centered on the strategy of how to decrease inefficiency and incorporate the lowest fare in the world as possible. With low complexity, cost-efficiency and productivity, the company has the cornerstone elements of building a strong business (Porter, 2007). In addition, according to Rhoades & Jr. (2005), the most flourishing carriers came to control their hub markets permitting them to exert greater control over capacity and pricing. Founded on this statement, the present issues in AirAsia organization are how to accomplish being the least expensive carrier in the world and still make their profits. In relation to these issues, Rhoades & Jr. said that AirAsia the most thriving carrier in the airline industry permitting them to exercise greater control over capacity and pricing (Porter, 2007). A critical solution to AirAsia achieving its dreams is through utilizing IT and employing E-commerce in their business. These days, E-commerce is becoming a commerce instrument. Also, E-commerce has turned into a vital strategic management technique, which allows a company to advertise, sell products, purchase supplies, track inventory, bypass intermediaries, share information and eliminate paperwork. All in all, electronic commerce is reducing the cumbersomeness and expense, higher profitability and improved products. According to this report, E-commerce can transform the manner of doing business these days. E-commerce becomes a key success to a company to make efficiency and effectively in their industry. AirAsia is one of the organizations, which is employing E-commerce and utilizing their IT usage to make the effectively and efficiency in their company, which will lower the cost of operation of the carrier. AirAsia has an extremely strong management staff with strong relations with airline

Long term debt alternatives for hospitals Article

Long term debt alternatives for hospitals - Article Example Hospital financing has never been so easy. With lots of options to choose from and government’s encouraging policies to back upon, the financing part of the hospital has become organized and comfortable for all the involved parties.Once the proposed hospital’s capital has been decided, the desired method of the capital funding needs to be determined. In the US hospital industry, approximately 50% of the assets are financed through equity and 50% through debt. Long term debt financing is available from at least four major sources: tax-exempt revenue bonds, Federal Housing Administration insured mortgages, public taxable bonds, and conventional mortgage financing.To obtain debt financing, hospitals must maintain a certain level of financial performance as measured by various ratios of assets to liabilities or income to expenses.The two prominent long term debt alternatives for hospital are:1. Conventional mortgage: A mortgage in which the interest rate does not change during the entire term of the loan and that is not insured or guaranteed by the government. Interest rate is the rate which is charged or paid for the use of money. An interest rat e is often expressed as an annual percentage of the principal. It is calculated by dividing the amount of interest by the amount of principal. Interest rates often change as a result of inflation and Federal Reserve policies. For example, if a lender (such as a bank) charges a customer $90 in a year on a loan of $1000, then the interest rate would be 90/1000 *100% = 9%. 90/1000 *100% = 9%. Lenders typically require a down payment of at least 20 percent on a conventional loan, although you can get a loan with a down payment of 3 percent or even less if you are willing to pay private mortgage insurance (PMI). PMI protects the lender if the owner defaults on the loan. Conventional mortgage loans are typically fully amortizing, meaning that the regular principal and interest payment will pay off the loan in the number of payments stipulated on the note. Most conventional mortgages have time frames of 15-to-30 years and may be either fixed-rate or adjustable. While most mortgages require monthly payments of principal and interest, some lenders also offer interest-only and biweekly payment options. 2. Taxable bonds Over the past 15 years, hospitals have invested large sums of money in physician practices and various joint ventures with physician groups. However, these funds come with a catch: control over whatever the hospital has invested in typically is required to stay with the hospital. In many cases, this has created a lot of tension between the two entities -- and this is where bond financing comes in to play. Bonds carry lower rates of interest than bank loans and permit physicians to retain control over their operations. Bonds are a form of debt which has a principal amount (or par value) payable at maturity and bears interest (the coupon rate) payable at certain intervals. Bonds are similar to loans from a bank, except that bonds are typically longer in maturity (20 to 30 years) and are usually sold to third-party investors. Bonds can be taxable or tax-exempt depending on the tax status of the borrowing entity. A not-for-profit 501(c)(3) hospital can borrow on a tax-exempt basis (which affords lower interest rates) due to its nonprofit tax status, whereas, for-profit, private physician groups borrow on a taxable basis. Taxable bonds are issued by a physician group and sold to investors (by the group's investment banker) based on the promise of the group to repay the principal of the bonds and all interest. Since third-party investors will probably not be familiar with the particular physician group, a commercial bank with a good credit rating serves as an intermediary to provide a credit and liquidity guaranty to the investors. The bank then

Nursing Power Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nursing Power - Assignment Example Mrs. Jacksons’ tendency to favor other staff members is a likely reason for lack of motivation among staff members at the work place. Improper conflict resolution skills by nurse managers can be detrimental to the cooperation of members. Nurse Managers should adopt sound practices aimed at resolving any form of conflict at the workplace. Mrs. Jackson’s public humiliation of junior staff members depicts her poor conflict resolution skills. This is a most likely cause of underperformance of the employees. Junior members in the staff are likely to keep any information that may contribute to conflict resolution for fear of Mrs. Jackson’s demeaning treatments. Optimal team functioning in any nursing environment is achievable when leaders create perfect work environments (Cummings et al., 2009). Staff satisfaction is among the top considerations that nursing managers should ensure in the working environment. Nursing managers should focus on developing proper relationsh ips with staff members. This increases the level of satisfaction of the nursing workforce (Cummings et al., 2009). As Nicol (2012) identifies, collaboration between leaders and members of the nursing staff is necessary in improving service delivery. Education and training of staff members is vital in achieving a working environment that delivers quality services. Developing a definite framework for operation is important in ensuring a coordinated staff. Integration between nursing managers and staff members is critical in any nursing environment (Nicol, 2012). This helps harness leadership skills and promotes harmony and coordination among the members of the staff. This also ensures to the realization of quality service and full utilization of the expertise of the staff members. Strategies that offer platforms of addressing nursing concerns are instrumental in ensuring a good working environment. These include committees set to solve conflicts among members of the staff. Poor leader ship by nursing managers of nursing staff affects the quality of service delivery. Supervisors of nursing managers should ensure set up actions that address any concern of underperformance of nursing managers. The case of Mrs. Jacksons involves underperformance in executing the roles of nursing manager. Her supervisor can explore strategies that promote educational and professional skills development. The supervisor can recommend training sessions for Mrs. Jacksons to enhance her leadership skills. The supervisor can appoint a nursing practice committee to assess the performance of Mrs. Jacksons. The practice committee should make possible recommendations on the best remedy to ensure Mrs. Jacksons performs her duty. Re-establishing the strategies of monitoring the performance of Mrs. Johnsons can help improve her management of the unit. Involving the staff members in monitoring the performance of Mrs. Jacksons can improve her performance level. Staff members’ complaints are c redible avenues of assessing the performance of Mrs. Jacksons. The supervisor, therefore, can address the concerns in a timely manner to avoid the lack of motivation among the staff members. In situations when all options are inapplicable, the supervisor can reinstate Mrs. Johnsons. Observations can be appropriate in monitoring the

Cultural Determinants of Terrorism Essay Example for Free

Cultural Determinants of Terrorism Essay Orchestrated objectives within well-organized terrorist groups suggest that principles of organizational psychology apply to terrorist organizations, under the cultural influence of each one (Borum, 2004). There is much cause for optimism in understanding terrorist organizations, for as Alder and Gunderson (2008) write, â€Å"Luckily, we have learned that global complexity is neither unpredictable nor random† (p. v). The call for research has never been more pressing. Introduction â€Å"Terrorism is an elusive subject, evading precise political, jurisprudential, and cultural definition† (Oliveri, 2008, p. 49). It depends upon the definition of ‘terrorism’. â€Å"With over 100 definitions, this is not an easy task; there is no common understanding of what constitutes ‘terrorism’; no clear and universally acknowledged definition actually exists† (Franks, 2007, p. 2). The definition Munger (2006) proposes that is used for this paper is, â€Å"Culture is defined as the set of ‘inherited’ beliefs, attitudes, and moral strictures that a people use to distinguish outsiders, to understand themselves and to communicate with each other† (p. 131). The distinguishing characteristic of ‘them’ and ‘us’ is perhaps the fundamental belief generated within cultures that makes terrorism towards others possible. Whether viewed in terms of extremist Muslim culture or right-wing American culture, cultural identity supports the conflict of ideologies. Ward (2008) says, â€Å"Terrorism has taken the academic world by storm† (p. 248). The Psychology of Terrorism only became a legitimate academic study in 1982; â€Å"terrorism is far from a new phenomenon, traceable to the French Revolution and the Nihilists of 19th Century Russia† (Franks, 2007, p. ). Undoubtedly, it goes much further into the annals of history than the 19th Century, â€Å"the concept of terrorism had no meaning in history until the modern era† (Bratkowski, 2005, p. 764). Prior to modernity, terrorism was so much a part of daily culture it was normal behavior, without a specific word for it. In fact, for most of Christendom, â €Å"humankind has always provided a justification for killing and instilling terror in fellow humans† (p. 764). It is only recently that most cultures have placed a label of immorality on selective murder to achieve political or cultural ends. Our species has a protracted history and prehistory of terrorism. One might wonder why terrorism has â€Å"taken the academic world by storm†. Insights from Psychology â€Å"Terrorist violence most often is deliberate (not impulsive), strategic, and instrumental; it is linked to and justified by ideological (e. g. , political, religious) objectives and usually involves a group or multiple actors/supporters (Borum, 2004, p. 17). Since terrorist objectives originate within multinational organizations, principles of organizational psychology apply to all terrorist organizations, under the cultural milieu of the organization in question. What is now certain is that terrorism is not a psychopathological aberration, as was originally thought in psychoanalytical circles (Crenshaw, 1992). Terrorist organizations are composed of clear-headed individuals, often with advanced university degrees. Merari (1991) collected empirical data on suicide bombers, and found that psychopathology is almost never a factor in a terrorist’s profile. In fact, â€Å"prevalence of mental illness among samples of incarcerated terrorists is as low as or lower than in the general population† (Borum, 2004, p. 34). This is a clear indicator that we are dealing with psychologies of organization, and not groups of crazed sociopaths. Survival of the organization, a tenet of organizational psychology, has clear implications for the terrorist mindset (Post, 1989), even though â€Å"research on the psychology of terrorism largely lacks substance and rigor. While cultural factors are important, much study remains. â€Å"Future research should be operationally-informed; maintain a behavior based focus; and derive interpretations from analyses of incident-related behaviors† (Borum, 2004, p. 3). The main problem with such a venture might be that terrorists are not giving interviews or taking surveys. Borum points out that â€Å"there is a broad spectrum of terrorist groups and organizations, each of which has a different psychology, motivation and decision making structure† (p. 5). This further underscores the need to be on guard against the ‘stereotypical terrorist organization’: there is none. In a terrorist organization, â€Å"two key narcissistic dynamics are a grandiose sense of self and ‘idealized parental imago’. If one can’t be perfect, at least one can be in a relationship with something perfect† (Borum, 2004, p. 9). Association with a world figure such as Bin Laden satisfies this need; this can lead us back to US culture: promulgation and amplifying worldwide terrorism, via the news media. Bin Laden often makes the evening news, and every time he does, his ‘world stature’ is elevated, especially in the min ds of his followers. It the name Bin Laden was unknown, how much less effective would al-Qaeda become? Media has some degree of culpability, if not complicity in promulgating terrorism worldwide by providing free publicity to organizations and their cause. According to Paul Marsden (CPM, 2001, p. 1), â€Å"the amount of media coverage devoted to these events, by television networks and newspapers, correlates positively with the rise in subsequent `copycat events. This is darkly consistent with the substantial body of evidence for suicide contagion the idea that suicides beget suicide. † If distraught teenagers copy Columbine style shootings, how much more are suicide attacks from terrorist cells encouraged by watching the evening news? Unintentionally but effectively eulogizing angry teens and terrorists alike hold moral implications for the major news media, which need addressing by society. Organizational Psychology provides some insight: if a culture perceives it is losing its ability to contribute its share to the world stage, conflict will result (Rahim, 1986; Katz ; Kahn, 1978). Considering that entire cultures may feel they are losing their ability to contribute because of intervention of external cultures upon their own culture is likely one requisite to the creation of worldwide terror organization formation. Cultural factors of extremist Muslim society While many in the West view extremist Muslim terrorism as irrational behavior by deranged individuals, â€Å"it is perfectly possible to understand terrorism as a rational decision problem, if we accept the premise that culture matters† (Munger, 2006, p. 132). â€Å"Islamic societies, not exclusively, but perhaps to a greater extent than most other nations, are committed to an idea of the perfectibility of humans in societies, through moral education and imposition and enforcement of moral law (Sharia) based on the Quran† (p. 142). This religious adherence adds a great deal of resistance to compromise from outside cultures, and bolsters the extremist elements within Islamic society. Much of the cultural foundation of extremist Muslim culture is their unique interpretation of the Quran: â€Å"The contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate. Accommodation, bargaining, and mutually acceptable compromise are not envisioned as possibilities within many terrorists’ mental framework† (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). It appears that once a terrorist organization is established, the only ways to eliminate it is either when they accomplish their objectives, to destroy them, or to take away their reason to exist, which will allow Skinnerian extinction to follow over time. The ‘destroy’ method is problematic and costly: how does one destroy an ideology? Islamic terrorists are well-connected using technology; their geographic locality is literally everywhere and nowhere. Culturally-attuned uses of information technology† are a major source of cross-cultural influences in the creation and sustaining of terrorist organizations (Bailey ; Grimaila, 2006, p. 534). Terrorist organizations are expert in spreading and sustaining their ideology around the world. Once indoctrinated into a group, people will generally follow orders, no matter how extreme or violent, as long as the individual perceives that the order was issued from the appropriate authority (Milgram, 1965). Cultural influences caused normal students at Stanford to transform into ‘merciless prison guards’; once given the role and the authority, al-Qaeda recruits mold easily to orders from Bin Laden. Not only do they have a physical authority, which relieves their individual conscience from objecting, but also they further believe that Allah Himself sanctions Bin Laden and themselves in their efforts to establish Sharia law throughout the world (Bailey ; Grimaila, 2006). There is substantial agreement that the psychology of terrorism cannot be considered apart from political, historical, familial, group dynamic, organic, and even purely accidental, coincidental factors† (Borum, 2004, p. 22). Borum also states, â€Å"Significant differences [exist] both in, 1) the nature and level of aggression in different cultures, and 2) aggression can be environmentally manipulated; both findings that argue against a universal human instinct [of violence]† (p. 12). Diamond (20 04) argues that environmental influences are paramount in understanding why cultures are the way they are. The Fertile Crescent, once the cornerstone of agriculture, became radically altered once all the forests were clear-cut, leaving mostly a barren desert environment. It is interesting to note that the foundation cultures which harbored the seeds of al-Qaeda all come from this former environmental paradise. Therefore, while culture probably has the most influence on the creation of terrorist organizations in the short term today, environment certainly has a large degree of impact over the long term, and might have a large impact in the short term via militaristic or political manipulation. For many critics, global or ‘hyper’ terrorism has become an ultimate expression of acutely depressed geopolitical chaos† (Ward, 2008, p. 252). Geopolitical chaos produces environments ripe with opportunity for recruiters toward the cause of terrorism. Without addressing and rectifying the chaotic areas of the world, it is highly doubtful, that global terrorism will end. Cultures th at feel oppressed or depraved on the world stage may rise in rebellion against the oppressing culture(s), with or without religious dictate. Muslim culture is producing the lion’s share of high-visibility terrorists in the world today (Borum, 2004). One way to understand Muslim culture as it relates to the creation of terrorism is to look at Hofstede’s dimensions. Generally, Islamic countries have large inequalities of status, forming a small ruling group, and a large ruled group with limited power. Hofstede (2001) shows, those Arab cultures have large Power Distance (PDI) (80) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (68). When these two Dimensions are combined, it creates a situation where leaders have virtually ultimate power and authority. It is not unusual for new leadership to arise from armed insurrection – the ultimate power, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change† (Borum, 2004, p. 44). Virtually the only method available for the downtrodden in Arab society to express their need for change is by armed insurrection. This is a valuable insight into the cultural creation of Arab-based terr orism, possibly the most important one. Naturally, from the ‘terrorists’ point of view they are not terrorists at all but â€Å"freedom fighters†, fighting with their only available means to enact positive change. Does this mean efforts at establishing democracy in Muslim states are likely to fail? Cultural roots run deep, and are resistant to change by outside cultures (Weiten, 2004), so the question of democracy introduced and established by Westerners is a highly speculative venture. Finally, take the case of a female suicide bomber. It was originally assumed that the young woman who committed this act was â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and of questionable morality† (Brunner, 2007, p. 961). It is difficult for Westerners to imagine otherwise. Subsequent interviews revealed that she was educated, showed no signs of emotional disturbance, and was â€Å"as highly intelligent and more independent than other girls in her society, but still fully within the range of normal† (p. 961). The key point is that she was â€Å"fully within the range of normal†, according to the culture that she grew up within. By not understanding her culture, Western culture had labeled her â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and immoral†, overlooking key factors with which to fully understand why a mentally stable young woman would commit such an act, and more importantly, to be able to deal realistically with the rise of extremist terrorism through a lack of cultural understanding. Cultural factors of the United States There is a cultural precedence of powerful nations to label other nations as ‘evil’: a threat to ‘civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). In the U. S. , â€Å"this is a very old cultural theme, deeply ingrained into the political psyche† (p. 56). This cross-cultural mindset of powerful nations is one part in the creation of terrorists in weaker cultures, a type of self-fulfilling prophecy: the call to destroy the ‘barbarians that threaten democracy’ is an ancient one; Greece and Rome had similar ongoing open-ended campaigns against terrorists, as does the U. S. today (p. 55). The main trouble with an open-ended campaign is that it never ends†¦ another cultural perception that needs adjustment on the world stage in order to arrive at peace in the world. Looking at the cultural history of the US, the ‘savage’ has always been the object of distain and genocide, in order to ‘make way for civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). The genocide of indigenous peoples of the North American continent is well documented, even using biological terrorist tactics of germ warfare; giving ‘gifts’ of small-pox laden blankets to Indians without acquired immunity against devastating disease (Diamond, 1997). Oliverio (2008) writes, â€Å"It was also a matter of common sense that the Aryan race was superior. This taken-for-granted reality of Aryan superiority led to the extermination of millions of American Indians, millions of African slaves bound for America, and countless indigenous cultures throughout the world† (p. 21). Powerful cultures that label weaker cultures as savages are a powerful impetus to the creation of terrorism. It is a recent habit of the American Right to wage war against abstractions (Comaroff, 2007, p. 381). The line between metaphorical and real war, blurred beyond recognition, gives rise to such cultural terms as ‘the war against drugs’, ‘the war against poverty’, ‘the war against illegal immigration’ (Sherry, 1995), and has become the standard of cultural mind-set in America today. Again, the US has a â€Å"militarized world-view extended to declaring metaphorical wars on disease, crime, engaging in ‘trade wars’ with foreign competitors, and fighting ‘culture wars’ with one another† (p. 58). â€Å"Culture wars† is the main point in question: how can peace ever prevail if acts of war against culture prevail? Even the Olympic Games that followed 9/11 became a forum for the core Bush Doctrine (Falcous ; Silk, 2005). How does the reduction of civil liberties fare with the response to terrorism? Not allowing college professors to speak out against governmental policies associated with the war on terror (Crowson ; DeBacker, 2008, p. 296) is one form of right-wing authoritarianism that many Americans think needs implementation. A disturbing trend of loss of personal freedoms that some associate with fascism. Taken as a whole, US domestic and foreign policy regarding oil consumption, and support for oppressive regimes, is set aside in deference to critical scrutiny of individual behavior and the forms of ‘moral lassitude’ associated with a culture of dependency† (Hay ; Andrejevic, 2006, p. 344). So at least part of the U. S. cultural mindset is about securing its own economic interests at the expense of decency and fairness on the world stage. Many people think that the U. S. would never have bothered with Iraq if they had no strategic oil supplies, especially in the Middle East and Europe. This belief can only inflame world tensions further. Understanding cross-cultural inter-dependencies A surprising interdependency, regards the Bush Administration itself. According to Kellner (2004), not only Jihadists are responsible for ‘spectacular acts of terror’, but also both Bush administrations. They deployed â€Å"Manichean discourses of good and evil which themselves fit into dominant media codes of popular culture; that both deploy fundamentalist and absolutist discourses† (p. 41). This is extremely similar to the â€Å"contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate† (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). The Bush administration openly declares its refusal to communicate with terrorist organizations or states, which is absolutist. We know that incentives flourish within such organizations (Munger, 2006). Incentives usually take two forms: 1) recruit members that are prone to obey and please within a cultural setting (e. g. collectivist rather than individualist cultures), and 2) â€Å"Create a set of incentives that reward loyalty, by giving access to excludable near-public (â€Å"club†) goods† (p. 131). Mohammed Atta reportedly was â€Å"at a strip club spending a lot of money, shouting anti-American slogans, and left a copy of the Quran before he left† (USA TODAY, 2001, p. 1). This incident seems to have fallen under ‘club goods’ instead of operational funds, because it was the night before the hijackings, and such excessive cash was no longer needed. This says nothing of the influence U. S. culture had on Atta, a devout Muslim going to a strip club, one day before he â€Å"meets Allah†. There is no such thing as a ‘terrorist state’, in the absolute sense. Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, and Lucca (1988) have shown that national cultures never equate to individual or subgroup cultures, so while a totalitarian governing body may indeed be a terrorist organization, the general populace can in no way be held accountable for the actions of a few. It is a stereotypical mistake to label an entire country as terrorist. It is important to realize that â€Å"both differences and similarities in behavior occur across and within cultures; psychological processes are characterized by both cultural variance and invariance† (Weiten, 2006, p24). Regrettably, â€Å"quite a few nations are culturally reasonably homogeneous† (Hofstede, 1998, p180), and this may mean that a few nations may be mostly extremist in their outlook. Discourses from the Bush administrations paralleled closely to speeches given by Hitler, Pope Urban II, and others: â€Å"an appeal to a legitimate power source external to the speaker; an appeal to the importance of the national culture under attack; the construction of an evil enemy; and an appeal for unification† (Graham, Keenan, ; Dowd, 2004, p. 213). Kellner (2004) feels that â€Å"the disparity between the vast amount of information freely available to all through multimedia sources, and the narrow vision presented on the major news media via television is a travesty†, and a major cultural factor responsible for the deployments of the Bush administrations’ controlled mass media (p. 61). While arguments that ‘freely available news sources from uncontrolled sources’ might suggest this no longer to be a cultural factor, culture by nature takes time to change, and most Americans probably place more credence in the evening news than the newer Internet sources (Kellner, 2003). Another example of how cross-cultural misunderstandings regularly occur between nations: â€Å"when one cultural message sender transmits information to another culture, chances of accurate transmission are reduced† (Alder ; Gunderson, 2008, p. 72), and when nations or organizations refuse to send information between cultures as both the Bush administration and the al-Qaeda organization currently do, virtually no chance of accurate transmission occurs. Stalemate results and wars go on, indefinitely; clear contributors to terrorism. Perhaps nowhere is the question of terrorism more complex than in the European Union: â€Å"European counterterrorism culture is a difficult concept due to the fact that the regional level of analysis encapsulates a range of different national cultures. Europe has always been a rich mixture of various cultures, and ‘terrorism’ is a culturally charged term† (Rees, 2007, p. 220), hence the difficulty in consensus. Conversely, in China, we could expect to find a unified definition of terrorism under the centralized government (Diamond, 1997). While China is suspect of â€Å"using the post-9/11 discourse of counterterrorism to cloak their own domestic priorities† (Rees, 2007, p. 224), most of their counterterrorism efforts are likely to gain support with the Chinese public as being in the accord of the countries best interest: China being a collectivistic nation. â€Å"Terrorists focus their recruitment where sentiments about perceived deprivation are deepest and most pervasive† (Borum, 2004). This helps us to understand why American involvement in Iraq actually helps create recruitment opportunities for al-Qaeda. Destroyed economies, infrastructure, and family support (via killed family members), create extreme deprivation, desperation to right cultural wrongs, and enrage cultural dictates for retribution (Borum, 2004). It even gives insight into where al-Qaeda might be concentrating recruitment efforts in America. For youth torn between two cultures in a foreign land, identity crisis may result from exposure to the foreign culture, and the chiasm between their parent’s cultures: â€Å"radicalism offers simple answers to the big questions they are grappling with† (Ongering, 2007, p. ). The human tendency to stereotype will easily adapt to simple answers rather than grapple with difficult questions (Weiten, 2004). Extrapolated, it may be easier to recruit a terrorist, than to prevent a person from taking up the cause in the first place. Does cultural pressure on a subgroup help to create violent extremists? Muslim communities in America, â€Å"Not only had their religion being p resented incorrectly, but its adherents were being equated with terrorists† (Baker, 2006, p. 302). Considering the degree that Muslim communities in the Western world are subject to intensified scrutiny, and even unwarranted acts of violence against them by US citizenry (Ward, 2008), a good assumption is that many young Muslims will adapt an extremist ideology in response to cultural threat (Sirin ; Fine, 2007), and some of those extremists will turn terrorist. It seems to be a never-ending spiral escalation of one cultural assault upon the other: the ‘Crusades’ continue†¦ It is a real ‘Which came first, the chicken or the egg? ’ question. Which side began this milieu of cultural attack and counterattack? Perceptions run the gamut: â€Å"The terrorist presents a story of heroism and necessary sacrifice. The counter-terrorist presents a counter-narrative of defiance and vengeance, replacing the image of the martyr with that of inhumanity, even bestiality† (Ward, 2008, p. 254). We reminded again of weaker cultures as ‘savage’, and as we have come to see, cross-culturally, nothing could be further from the truth from both extreme perspectives. Another cultural misunderstanding that may have helped to escalate tensions is the perception that the Muslim community in America did not stand up in unison and denounce the acts of 9/11 as atrocious. This initial silent response interpreted by many Americans as tantamount to condoning such acts of terrorism (Munro, 2006). Paradoxically, this lack of public outcry may have been the result of Muslim culture itself, with the majority of Muslims feeling that it was obvious that they had nothing to do with the attacks, and therefore no reason to take a public stand (Munro, 2006). A form of ‘vigilante counter-terrorism’ develops in American culture, which gives rise to anti-Muslim sentiment and acts of violence (Johnson, 2003). One probable contributing factor is termed: â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). The perpetrator, â€Å"for all outward appearances, a young Muslim man, well adjusted to Western society, considered friendly; one day, without warning, he acted out an independent Jihad, which injured nine students† (Pipes, 2006). Such unforeseeable and unpredictable behavior influences non-Muslims to stereotype many Muslims as having the same potential toward â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome†. This of course creates an atmosphere of suspicion and mistrust between cultures: how can you tell who the enemy is just by looking at them? Discussion There is no cultural ‘quick fix’ to this pervasive problem confronting the modern world. â€Å"The general policy approach has to be adaptive, opportunistic, and multisided. The conventional problem-solving logic so attractive in American culture—find a problem and then fix it—is of limited utility, and a longer term, more contextualized approach is necessary† (Smelser et al. , 2002, p. 4). For instance, the Global War on Terror (GWOT) as espoused by the Bush Doctrine includes toppling ‘rogue nations’ as part of the effort to thwart terrorism (Borum, 2004). Focusing on ‘nation rebuilding’ of states, that are otherwise subject to deterrent, rather than on organizations that transcend geographic localities and are not subject to deterrent, is a lack of proper cultural understanding of the issues, and will lead to further cultural misunderstandings. It makes sense that if powerful cultures do not make accusations against weaker cultures not understood, or interfere in the sovereign rights of weaker nations, that a large amount of terrorism will fail to manifest by lack of unwanted cultural impetus from foreign powers. One of the biggest troubles seems to be, that powerful countries can arouse their masses which are â€Å"easily pressed into service to rally the nation, quell dissent and effectively inoculate the public against any alternative perspective† (Ivie, 2005, p. 56), the main point being to limit any alternative cultural perspectives as being legitimate relative to one’s own ‘superior’ cultural perspective. This is error. â€Å"An increasingly militarized culture of fear† (p. 9), such as is dominant in the US today, and which has been developing over many decades, cannot reduce the threat of terrorism in the world. Indeed, Muslim culture dictates that retribution be demanded when a family member is taken. Each errant US bomb inevitably creates more ‘terrorists’ (Borum, 2004), cultural ‘deviants’ are created that never would have existed otherwise. Rumors and hundreds of websites have sprung up claiming that FEMA has erected hundr eds of internment camps on American soil is a disturbing part of the changing culture in America today. A Google search of ‘American internment camps’ will pull up hundreds of unsubstantiated claims of such camps, including specific locations; further highlighting the cultural atmosphere of increasing paranoia. Finally, what can help prevent Muslim youth in the U. S. from taking a violent path? According to Sirin and Fine (2007)â€Å"Research that the successful integration of both one’s own culture and the dominant culture, leads to more positive developmental outcomes†¦whereas marginalization, that is disengagement from both cultures, is associated with mental health problems for immigrant youth† (p. 52). Society certainly would do well to address issues of marginalization, in order to help prevent future â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). Conclusion While this paper has focused mainly on US and Muslim extremist involvement, state and non-state respectively, it is important to remember that many other states and organizations exist whic h perpetrate terror. Terror is a two way street, with few exceptions. Perhaps the ultimate defense against terrorism is to understand the cultural and cross-cultural causes of it, and with proper knowledge, address the issues at hand. We must avoid stereotypes at all costs, because â€Å"Nearly all terrorists are extremists, but most extremists are not terrorists† (Borum, 2004). â€Å"Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation† (Franke, Hofstede, ; Bond, 1991) may provide insights into which culture holds greater strength in the GWOT. U. S. culture demands immediate results, and has little tolerance for long term strategies, while extremist Islamic culture is bond by the vision of Mohammed, and is prepared to sacrifice for centuries if need be (Borum, 2004). Fortunately, unnecessary warring between cultures may diminish substantially as one of the biggest single benefits of cross-cultural understanding and application of organizational psychological research (Brislan, 1983). â€Å"It is argued that we now live in an age of ‘hyperterrorism,’ where the nature and scale of terrorism has reached a new level, and that the question of ‘How to deal with international terrorism is quickly becoming the defining issue of our age’† (Ward, 2008, p. 248). It is imperative that we make every effort to understand the cross-cultural determinants of terrorism, regardless of cost. Additionally, â€Å"terrorism is a discourse that affects all our lives, and the collateral argument that terrorism somehow validates the occasional abrogation of so many of our most cherished legal principles, is something that should concern all of us† (p. 249). Hogan (2006) offers: â€Å"Due to the logistical and analytical challenges of cross-national comparisons, studies to date have concentrated largely on single nations† (p. 64). While much work remains, understanding the vast scope of cultural interdependencies that help create terrorism is an extremely complex task yet must be undertaken if we are to come to terms with global terrorism. As Hostede (1998) states, â€Å"constructs are products of the mind with which we attempt to understand and predict human behavior in an infinitely complex world†, and all constructs are flawed to some degree. In an infinitely complex world, we will never entirely eradicate terrorism in its many manifestations. Our best hope to eradicate the bulk of organized terrorism is through scientific understanding and conscientious application of rational solutions, freed from cultural bias. â€Å"Culture lies entirely on the â€Å"nurture† side of the ledger, as against â€Å"nature†, or truly nherited traits† (Munger, 2006, p. 134). Solutions to the specter of terrorism will manifest through understanding and responding to such cultural nurture. This paper has posited that understanding other cultures can help to reduce tensions between cultures, which give rise to terrorism and counterterrorism conflicts. As Munger (2006) points out, â€Å"a shared understanding of something that identifies insiders, and excludes outsiders because they do not share this understanding† (p. 133), is perhaps the fundamental commonality between conflicting sides. If we can short-circuit this exclusionary identity concept, by education and promulgate understanding by either, or both sides, and act upon it with responsible communication between parties, then perhaps modern terrorism as we know it will eventually end. It may take many years, because established terrorist organizations are not open to compromise (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002), but such efforts may play a large part in helping to prevent future recruitment, and help eliminate the need for terrorist organizations within the cultures that originally spawned them; losing their luster they slowly fade from existence.